Modul Kimia

Zat tunggal adalah zat yang mempunyai sifat dan susunan yang sama pada setiap bagian nya. 

Contoh : Besi,Air,Gula,Tembaga

Zat tunggal dibedakan menjadi :

Unsur adalah zat tunggal yang tidak dapat diuraikan lagi menjadi  lain yang lebih sederhana secara kimia

Unsur dibagi menjadi :

A.Unsur logam

Ciri ciri logam

• Mengkilap
• Dapat di bentuk
• Pada umumnya berwujud padat, kecuali air raksa berwujud cair
• Dapat menghantarkan panas konduktor

Contoh unsure logam : emas,besi,tembaga,seng,perak,dll

B.Unsur non logam

Ciri ciri unsur non logam

• Tidak mengkilap tidak dapat dibentuk
• Tidak dapat dibentuk
• Pada umumnya berwujud gas dan cair
• Tidak dapat menghantarkan panas/isolator

Contoh unsur non logam : Oksigen,karbon,hydrogen,nitrogen,dll

Ikatan kimia

Konfigurasi elektron yang stabil

Suatu senyawa pada hakikatnya terbentuk karena adanya interaksi antara atom –atom tersebut dapat bergabung satu sama dan diikat oleh satu gaya yang disebut ikatan kimia

Konsep ikatan kimia antar atom didasari oleh adnya segolongan unsur yang memiliki ke setabilan yang sangat tinggi sehingga unsur unsur sukar bereaksi  (berinteraksi) dengan unsur yang lain.

Golongan unsur unsur yang stabil ini adalah golongan unsur unsur gas mulia (golongan VIIIA) mengapa gas mulia memiliki kesetabilan yang cukup tinggi menurut Gilbert Newton lewis  dan Albert Kossel dua ilmuwan amerika, kesetabilan dari unsure unsur gas mulia disebabkan oleh elektron valensinya yang berjumlah delapan kecuali “He” hanya memiliki dua elektron valensi

Albrecht Kossel menyatakan bahwa ada kecendrungan dari setiap atom untuk mengikuti susunan electron seperti yang memliki oleh gas mulia

GN Lewis mengembangkan kaidah octet dan cara menggambarkan kedudukan electron electron pada kulit terluarnya kaidah octet menyatakan bahwa atom atom cendrung akan memiliki delapan electron di kulit terluarny.

Konfigurasi electron dari gas mulia dapat dilihat 

Lambang  Atom	Nomor Atom	Jumlah electron pada mulia						Jumlah Elektron Valensi
		K	L	M	N	O	p
He		2						2
Ne	10	2	8					8
Ar	18	2	8	8				8
Kr	36	2	8	18	8			8
Xe	54	2	8	18	18	8		8
Rn	86	2	8	18	32	18	8	8

Pembentukan ion  Na⁺

Atom Na dengan nomor atom II berarti memiliki II electron dengan susunan 281 agar stabil Na akan mengikuti susunan electron dari Ne, yaitu 28 dengan demikian Na kelebihan electron untuk itu Na cendrung melepaskan electron Na akan memiliki kelebihan muatan positif sebanyak satu buah perbandingan jumla partikel dasar Na sebelum dan setelah melepaskan electron adalah seperti tampak pada table berikut!

Sebelum electron di lepas	Setelah electron di lepas
Proton 12 (+)	Proton 12 (+)
Electron 12 (-)	Elektron 10 (-)
Selesai muatan 0	Selisih muatan 2

Selisih muatan positif sebagai satu buah di tuliskan sebagai pangkat dari Na pebentukan ion Na

Na (281)

Na+ + 0 (28)

Pembentukan ion (+) dan ion (-)

	E	K	L	M	N	O	P	Q	E.V
2He	2	2							2
10Ne	10	2	8						8
12Ar	18	2	8	8					8
36Kr	36	2	8	16	8				8

Suatu unsur di sebut stabil jika mempunyai electron valensi 8 kecuali untuk He stabil jika E.V – 2

Pembentukan ion (+)

	E	K	L	N	E.V
12Mg	12	2	8	2	2

Mg ²⁺ (2,8)      ion Mg ²⁺

E	K	L	M	N	E.V
19	2	8	8	1	1

 (K^H 2.8.8)        a K¹⁺

Pembentukan ion (-)

	E	K	L	E.V
9F	9	2	7	710

F^1- (2.8)        ion F^+-

	E	K	L	M	E.V
15P	15	2	8	5	536

P^3-1 (2.8.8)      ion P^3-1

E.V Kecil

(1.2.3)    E dilepas     ion +

E.V Besar 

(5.6.7)    E ditangkap     ion –

C.V=4	E  Dilepas ion +
	E  Ditangkap ion -

	E	K	L	M	E.V
14X	14	2	8	4	4

X⁴⁺ (2.8)  ion X⁴⁺

X^4- (2.8.8) ion X^4-

Pengertian (Ar) atom relative

Perbandingan massa rata rata satu atom unsure X dengan 1/12 massa satu atom karbon isotof 12 (c-12)

Molekul relative (Mr)

Merupakan massa suatu zat yang berupa senyawa dan didefinisikan sebagai perbandingan massa  molekul senyawa tesebut terhadap 1/12 massa satu atom karbon isotof 12 (c-12)

Mol adalah satuan banyaknya partikel atom merupakan penyederhanaan dari jumlah partikel 

D hokum Gay Lussac dan hokum Avogadri berdasarkan penemuan Henry Cavendish tentang perbandingan volume hydrogen dan volume oksigen dalam membentuk molekul  air adalah zat dimana kedua 45 tersebut pada suhu (+) dari tekanan (P)

STOIKHIOMETER

Ukuran perubahan kimia ditinjau dari persaman reaksi kimia

1.konsep mol

Pengrtian massa tau relative

Konsep mol

Hubungan nol dengan massa atom elatif

Volum molar

A.pengertian massa atom relative

Ar           = massa atom relative molekul

Mr          = massa atom relative molekul

O             = zat tunggal unsure Ar = 16

O₂        = molekul unsure Mr         = (2x ArH) + Ar0=2x1+16=18

H₂O      = molekul senyawa  Mr   = 2x Aro = 2x16 + 32

O₃        = ozon molekul unsure Mr = 3x Aro = 3x16 = 48

Konsep mol

1mol = 6,02 x 10²³ partikel/bilangan avogodro (no)

Mol adalah satuan yang menyatakan jumlah partikel

1mol unsure       = 6,02 x 10²³ partikel unsure

1mol senyawa   = 6,02 x 10²³ partikel molekul unsure

1.       5mol Zn  = 5x 602 x 10²³ = 3,01 x 10²³ partikel unsure

2.       0,5 mol Fe = 0,5 x 6,02 x 10²³ = 5,01 x 10²³ partikel unsure

3.       0,02 x 6,02 x 10²³ = 0,1204 x 10²³ = 12,04 x 10²³ partikel senyawa

4.       10 mol H₂O = 10 x 6,02 x 10²³ = 6,2 x 10²³ partikel senyawa

5.       0,3 m0l H2So4 = 0,3 x 6,02 x 10²³ = 1,806 x 6,02 x 10²³ = 18,00 x 10²² partikel senyawa 

Reaksi reduksi – oksidasi (redoks)

Perkembangan konsep reaksi redoks

A.ditinjau dari penggabungan dan pelepasan oksigen

Reaksi oksidasi : reaksi penghubungan oksigen

Contoh : C+ O₂        CO₂

                 H₂ + O₂         H₂O 

                 Fe + O₂          Fe2O3

                 CH₄ + O₂      CO₂ + H2O

Reaksi reduksi : reaksi pelepasan oksigen

Contoh :  Fe₂O₃ + CO        Fe + CO₂

                 CO₂ + H₂O        C₆ H₁₂ O₆ + O₂

Ditinjau dari pelepasan dan penerimaan electron

Contoh : Zn         Zn⁺² + 2e

Reaksi reduksi : reaksi penerimaan electron

Contoh : Cu⁺² + 2e         Cu

Contoh keseluruhan

Cu⁺² + Zn           Cu + Zn⁺²

Muatan : 

+2	O	Reduksi
O	+2	Oksidasi

Ditinjau dari bilangan oksidasi (biloks)

Reaksi Oksidasi : reaksi peningkatan biloks

Reaksi reduksi : reaksi penurunan biloks

Contoh :  Fe² O₃ + CO         Fe + CO₂

Bilangan oksidasi ( Bloks)

Aturan bloks

Bloks  unsure bebas = 0

Bloks ion menahan = muatanya

Bloks unsure hydrogen dalam senyawa berharga + kecuai pada senyawa hibrida logam = -1

Bloks unsure oksigen dalam senyawa berharga -2 kecuali padasenyawa perak sisa =-1,dan pada senyawa OF2 + 2

Bloks unsure logam selalu berharga positif

Bloks unsure golongan VII A dalam senyawa biner=-1

Jumlah bloks tiap unsure dalam senyawa = 0 jumlah bloks tiap unsure dalam ion poliatom = muatan nya

Contoh bloks

Atom W,H,O,CO,Ba,bloks,O molekul unsure P₄H₂,O₃ O₂ bloks O

Na ⁺ bloks +1 Mg²₊ bloks +2 S^-2 bloks -2

H2O	+1 -2
CH4	+1
H2S	+1

H2o	-2
co	-2
H2 SO4	-2

Bloks logam = + (tergantung golongan )

Contoh : 

NaCl	Logam golongan I A	+1
Mos	Logam golongan II A	+2

HF	Golongan VIA	-1
NaCl	Golongan VIIA	-2

Larutan elektrolit ion mol elektrolit 

A.larutan

Larutan adalah atom atom homogenya dua zat atau lebih yang saling melarutkan dan masing masing zat penyusunya tidak dapat dibedakan lagi secara fisik.larutan terdiri atas dua komponen yaitu komponen zat terlarut dan komponen larut

Komponen dengan jumlah yang sedikit biasanya disamakan terlarut

Pelarut adalah komponen yang jumlahnya lebih banyak atau yang strukturnya tidak berubah

Kesetimbangan kimia

1.reaksi kesetimbangan

Reaksi kimia terbagi menjadi dua yaitu reaksi searah (reaksi berkesudahan) dan reaksi dapat balik (reaksi kesetimbangan) pada reaksi berkesudahan pereaksi bebas bereaksi dan berubah seluruhnya menjadi produk produk yang terbentuk tidak dapat kembali lagi menjadi pereaksi

Contoh reaksi berkesudahan adalah reaksi pembakaran atau perkaratan logam contohnya reaksi pembakaran ion +membentuk gas karbondiosida dan air mengkerut reaksi (2H5O Hc₉₉  + 3O₂ (9)            HO₂ (0) + 3H₂OCi)

Kesetimbangan dinamis adalah suatu keadaan yang terbentuk dari reaksi kimia yang dapat membalikan keadaan semula ( rogorsit ) hasil pereaksinya dapat bereaksi menjadi membentuk zat pereaksi suatu reaksi disatukan setimbang contohnya reaksi pembentukan gas monia dari gas ini nitrogen dan gas hydrogen , menurut reaksi

N₂  (0)+ 3H₂ 2 (9) = 2_N H₃ (9)

Ciri ciri kesetimbangan dinamis antara lain :

Reaksi berlangsung dalam dua arah berlawanan

Tidak terjadi perubahan mikropis, namun perubahan mikropis tetap berlangsung

Terjadi padaruang tertutup, suhu tetap, dan tekanan tetap,

Laju reaksi kearah hasil pereaksi sama dengan laju reaksi kearah pereaksi

Setiap komponen pada reaksi itu tetap ada

Kesetimbangan dibedakan menjdi ksetimbangan homogeny  dan kesetimbangan heterogen perbedaan ini berdasarkan wujud yang ada dalam keadaan setimbang

Kesetimbangan homogeny yaitu suatu kesetimbangan yang didalamnya terdapat zat zat dengan wujud yang sama

Kesetimbangan heterogen yaitu yaitu suatu kesetimbangan yang didalamnya terdapat zat zat yang wujudnya berbeda

Laju reaksi

Pengertian laju reaksi

Lajur reaksi adalah perbandingan bahan konsentrasi ke reaksi tau hasil reaksi terhadap perubahan waktu laju reaksi : Perubahan konsentrasi waktu/waktu

                                                              = Mol/liter/3

Apabila persamaan reaksi

A maka laju reaksinya  V= {A}

Dimana X = orde/ tingkat reaksi

              K = konstara laju reaksi

Contoh : DIK : persamaan reaksi : N₂  (9) + 3H₂ (9) = 2NH₂ (9) persamaan laju reaksi V = K [N₂}^X  {N₂}⁹

Overcoming Cats Will not Eat

Many factors cause the cat does not want / appetite , to know the cause at least we could do a proper solution but of course the help of a doctor to be conducted . Here are some factors that could make the cat will not eat ,

Diseases that attack the digestive system generally cause a cat to cat no appetite . Ranging from oral and dental disease to stomach . But did not rule out other diseases such as the flu in cats or distemper . sometimes appetite loss due to this disease is accompanied by debilitation , weakness and vomiting

 Cats may also experience stress . This is due, among other mood changes eg new home , to have collided with another cat

 Food was replaced its kind can make a cat would not eat . Because each cat has its own suitability for food dikonsumsinya.Untuk it is advisable not too often mengubah2 cat food

Cats who are in the lust there is diminishing appetite . Though not all cats experience

 Unlike with dogs or other animals , very dangerous for cats when not eating one day only. In animals that do not eat , the energy for the body's various physiological processes remain available from burning the fat stored in the body tissues . But the process of burning fat into energy in the body is very inefficient cat . At the time of the burning of fat , there is a change in metabolism in cats that causes damage to the liver tissue called hepatic lipidosis ( read : danger cat will not eat ) .There are so many causes of cat will not eat . The simplest may be because cats are bored with the usual food supplied . Another cause more severe and dreaded the sick . Appetite in sick cats will be reduced or even disappear altogether . Best course of action if the cat will not eat , see a veterinarian immediately and consult your cat problem .For a while following a few simple measures can be taken to address the appetite is lost , but if continued immediately take your cat to the ve
Fishing rods appetiteSometimes a cat is a bit lazy and spoiled . Try handed food ( plate of food ) to the nose or put a little food in his mouth and see if his appetite was awakened . This method can be tried a few times , if that does not work use the next way .
Mix & replace food
Like humans , cats can get bored of the same food every day . Some commercial dry cat food ( small biscuits shaped ) does not have a smell and taste appetizing . It could be being addressed by giving wet food or canned food and a scent that does have a stronger flavor . When the cat will eat the wet food , try dry food mix with wet food . Canned food ( wet ) should not be given every day for the long term because in addition to inadequate nutrition can also accelerate the formation of plaque or tartar .Variety of canned food products for cats is widely available in the market / pet store , from cheap to expensive . Note also the content of each food brands . Common foods such as WHISKAS & Friskies usually enough to stimulate the appetite . If you want better food can be provided by the brand Science Diet ( Hills ) or if you want better food could be given special " Science Diet a / d " ( Science Prescription Diet a / d ) . Besides the flavor and aroma that is more stimulating , nutrient " Science diet a / d " is also better and more complete . Keep in mind special food " Science Diet a / d " only to be given once in a while , not for food every day .
Feeding cats can by hand , small spoon or easier to use syringe ( syringe / injection ) without a needle . The food provided is wet food . The wet food can be:

1. canned food
2. dry food soaked in warm water first , then after soft crushed with a spoon or blender
3. canned food mixed with dry food that has been destroyedsuapi cat while occasionally handed food at prirng eating to see if the cat is going to eat itself . Be careful when feeding using a syringe . Hold the cat's head or ear , insert the syringe contains liquid food from the side ( next to the mouth end ) , press the syringe slowly so the cat can chew and swallow food properly . Syringe containing food should not be sprayed into the mouth of a cat because it could lead to a cat choking on food .

Give vitamins and appetite stimulantSome supplements or vitamins can be given as an appetite stimulant . Vitamins are the most simple and easy can usually vitamin B complex . This vitamin can be given in tablet or syrup form .Another supplement that can be given is the amino acid lysine ( Lysine ) . Besides being able to stimulate the appetite , lysine can also interfere with the replication / growth of disease-causing herpes virus Feline rhinotracheitis ( Cat Flu ) .Look for supplements and vitamins at the pharmacy near you. Lysine and B complex usually widely available as a supplement for children , such as Biolysin ® Syrup , Lysmin ® ( containing lysine and vitamin B complex ) , Becombion ® syrup ( B complex ) . Get used to provide vitamins simultaneously or a few minutes after eating . Especially in cats that do not eat all day , which was not preceded supplementation feeding can irritate the stomach and cause vomiting . Consult the mode of administration and dosage of these supplements with your veterinarian subscription .Such as lysine supplementation and the new complex will affect B increases appetite after a few days given continuously every day . If you want a faster effect ( instant ) , call your veterinarian and ask for subscriptions appetite stimulant drugs ( appetite stimulant ) like diazepam ( valium dose 0.05-0.2 mg / kg IV sid - qod or 0.5 - 1 mg PO sid * ) .Diazepam is a prescription drugs that can affect hunger center in the brain . Drug reaction is quite fast about 10-15 minutes after administered orally . Therefore immediately provide food near the cat so he can eat so the drug immediately react . Because of the addictive effects ( addictive ) diazepam should not be given more than 2 times in a row .Tube feedingTube feeding is feeding directly into the stomach through a tube . Usually performed by a veterinarian on a sick animal who can not chew and swallow the food in the slightest . Tube feeding is also commonly performed on children who are not breast-fed cat parent and can not suck milk from the dot .
 

Recipes and how to make rendang

 Rendang is a dish of meat or randang spicy flavor that uses a mixture of various herbs and spices . This dish is produced from heated cooking process repeated with coconut milk . Cooking process takes many hours ( usually about four hours ) to dry and solid black . At room temperature , rendang can last for weeks . Rendang is cooked in a shorter time and has not dried coconut called kalio , light golden brown .
 Rendang can be found at Rumah Makan Padang worldwide . The cuisine is popular among the people of Indonesia and other countries in Southeast Asia , such as Malaysia , Singapore , Brunei , the Philippines , and Thailand . In the region of origin , Minangkabau , rendang served in a variety of ceremonies and special events . Though rendang is a traditional Minangkabau cuisine in general , each region in the Minangkabau have cooking techniques and the use of different herbs .
 n 2011 , rendang dish has been named as the first rank in the list of World 's 50 Most Delicious Foods ( World's 50 most delicious dishes ) held by CNN International .

Rendang recipe - you would have been familiar with the restaurants that were encountered dipinggiran Padang roads in several cities in Indonesia. When talking about Padang restaurant , the most typical and often served as course rendang is rendang dishes typical cuisine of the Minangkabau region -based beef . Despite coming from Padang , this cuisine has spread throughout the entire region in Indonesia and not just at home eating desert only we could see this dish . Because in the great days or family gatherings , food is also often served . In addition to beef rendang , some are made ​​from chicken rendang , but served to your taste , respectively . To make this rendang dishes may be a bit difficult for those of you who are not familiar cooking rendang , because it needed seasoning spices typical of Indonesia . Yet it is a lot of information that you can Rendang recipe from cookbook example to the internet site .Because so much public interest in Indonesia's Padang dishes this one , below we will give you information and recipes how to make beef rendang with the steps that you can practice alone in your kitchen . To make this rendang dishes you can follow a few steps , as follows :

 Ingredients :

    1 kg of fresh beef
    1 ounce fresh red chilli
    14 spring onions
    7 cloves of garlic
    3 cm ginger
    5 pieces of hazelnut
    1 stalk lemongrass
    3 cm laos
    12 cups coconut milk
    2 tamarind seeds kandis
    1 turmeric leaf sheet
    2 tsp salt
    3 kaffir lime leaves
How to Make Beef Rendang :

    Cut the beef into pieces and then wash . Set aside .
    Puree red peppers , red onions , garlic , nutmeg and ginger until well blended .
    Crushed lemongrass and galangal .
    Boil the milk with the spice paste in a container pot , add the galangal , lemongrass , tamarind kandis , turmeric leaf , kaffir lime leaves and salt . Mix well and thickens .
    If you have started out stew seasoning oil , input cuts of beef . Stir over medium heat until cooked .
    If you want to blackened seasoning rendang , simply reduce the heat and cook until the oily ( black ) with occasional stirring so as not lengkat and cooked through .
    Serve in a serving bowl .